Tuesday, August 20, 2019
Background To Al Tayeb Salih English Language Essay
Background To Al Tayeb Salih English Language Essay The current research addresses the dilemma of translating cultural terms especially in literary works. It aims at shedding some light on the problems that translators, particularly between Arabic and English, face with dealing with cultural terms and on the decisions made by these translators to overcome these problems. The Wedding of Zein, written by the Sudanese distinguished novelist Al-Tayeb Salih and translated into English by the well-known translator Denys Johnson-Davies, has been chosen as a study case to be analysed. The data collected will be categorised according to the procedures proposed by Vladimir Ivir (1997) and by the scale of domestication (translators visibility) and foreignsation (translators invisibility) proposed by Lawrence Venuti (1995/1998). The current study, however, consists of four main sections. In the first section, the background of the novel, the writer, and the translator is highlighted. Moreover, the aims of the study and the methodology are stated. The second section reviews the techniques and procedures put forwarded by different translation theorists, with special focus on Ivirs work (1997). The work of Venuti (1995/1998) is discussed in section two. The data collected from the source text and the translated text will be analysed in section three. Finally, section four contains the conclusion and the findings. 1.1 Background to Al-Tayeb Salih and The Wedding of Zein Al-Tayeb Salih (full name: Al-Tayeb Mohammed Salih Ahmed) 1929-2009. He was a well-known Sudanese novelist and short-story writer. He was born in a small village called Karmakoul in northern Sudan and died in London. Buried in Sudan, his funeral was attended by the Sudanese president. His father was Sufi and named his son after a famous Sufism sheikh. He had spent his childhood in his small village before he moved to Khartoum to get a degree in Science. Later, he moved to England and attended the University of London to get a degree in the International Political Affairs. Al-Tayeb started his career life as a headmaster for a short time before he moved to work in the Arabic section in the BBC and, later, headed the drama section in it. Then, he came back to work in the Sudanese radio before he moved to Qatar and worked as a supervisor in the Ministry of Information. He ended up the last ten years in his career life with UNESCO in Paris and Gulf Area. It is worthy mentioning here that during his work in the BBC, Al-Tayeb used to write, for more than ten years, a weekly column for a London- based Arabic magazine called al Majalla in which he explored various literary issues. Moving from one country to another and from one city to another spurs Al-Tayeb to highlight the conflict between the Western and Eastern cultures and the differences between the Arab world and the Western world in his writings. In an interview (MBC 1994), Al-Tayeb mentions that he starts his literary life as a poet and that: نؠنØلؠ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ÙŠوننؠؠ¨ Øلؠ´ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ± وننؠ´ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ ÙˆØلؠ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ØÙ†Ùâ€ Ø Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ·ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ نؠ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù†¦ÃƒËœ Ø ¨ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ «ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ª ØÙ†Ùâ€ Ø Ø ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ²ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡ Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Øلؠ¹ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Øلؠ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã… My translation: We, the Sudaneses, love and recite poetry because we always need to proof our affiliation to the Arab World. Al-Tayeb, who is entitled the genius of the Arabic novel in the literary circles, belongs to the modern Arabic Realistic School which includes big names like Naguib Mahfouz (1911-2006) and Taha Hussein (1889- 1973) and many others. He wrote three novels and some short stories. His novels which gained a world-wide reputation and translated into many languages are: Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ø ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Øلن¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ © Øلن° Øلؠ´Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ The season of migration to the north (1966), Ø ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Øلؠ²Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ù†The wedding of Zein (1969) and Ø ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ´ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Bandarshah in two parts (1971/1979). Some critics claim that these novels form a trilogy similar to Naguib Mahfouzs famous trilogy (1956-1957). The season of migration to the north is translated into thirty languages and chosen among the best 100 novels in the world and in 2001 it is declared the best Arabic novel in the twentieth century by the Arab Literary Academy. His novel The Wedding of Zein was made into a drama in Libya and into a film by the Kuwaiti filmmaker Khalid Siddiq who won an award in the Cannes Festival in the late 1970s. In 2005, Newsweek magazine chose Al-Tayeb among the most 43 influential characters in the Arab World and despite that he did not win Noble Prize, he was always one of the strongest candidates for it. In recognition of his contribution to the Arabic literature, a film, produced by Al- Jazeera Documentary, highlighting the different stages of Al-Tayebs life has been released in his first death anniversary in February 2010. In his second death anniversary, an award named Al-Tayeb Salih International Award for Creative Writing has been launched. Ø ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Øلؠ²Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ù†, or The Wedding of Zein, is Al-Tayebs second successful novel in which he mixes reality with myth to form what is called ØلوØقؠ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø © Øلؠ³ÃƒËœÃ‚ Ø ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø © Magic Realism. The novel is about a young villager called Zein. He is odd in appearance and behaviour. Sometimes he is naÃÆ' ¯ve or Darwish and sometimes you find him chasing the girls of the village from one place to another. What is funny that Zein has made a reputation for himself as the man who falls in love over and over with girls who promptly marry other men; to the point where mothers seek him out in hopes that he will draw the eye of suitors to their daughters. One aspect of Zeins strangeness is that: ÙÅ ولØ ¯ Øلؠ£ÃƒËœÃ‚ ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ ØÙ„ ٠ؠ³Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù†ØلؠÙÅ ØØ © Ø ¨ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ®ÃƒËœÃ…’ ولكÙ†ÙÅ Ø ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù†° Ø £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Øلؠ²Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ù†وØلؠ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ° Ø £Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ ÙˆØلنؠ³ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡ ØللØØ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã… ؠؠ¶ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ولØØ ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ…’ Ø £Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù„ Ù†¦ÃƒËœ Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ Øلؠ£ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¶ÃƒËœÃ…’ Øن٠ؠ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ± Ø ¶ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ÙƒØ. Ù ˆØ ¸Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™ÃƒËœÃ‚ °ÃƒËœ Ø ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù„ Ø ÙÅ ØØ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡. (Ø µÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ØŒ Øلؠ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ¨ 7:1986) as is well known, children meet life with screams. With Zein, however, it is recounted- and the authorities for this are his mother and the women who attended his birth- that no sooner did he come into this world than he burst out laughing. And so it was throughout his life. (Salih, Al-Tayeb 1969: 33). The two main characters of the novel, beside Zein, are Al-Haneen, the Sufi Sheikh, who has a good relationship with Zein and represents the mythic side of the novel and Nima, Zeins beautiful rich cousin, who is the only girl that Zein respects and cannot flirt her and she represents the realistic aspect of the novel. The main event of the novel is the marriage of Zein and Nima which shocked all people in the village because it is unusual for ugliness and poverty (Zein) to unite with beauty and richness (Nima). The events of the novel take place in a week; from the spreading of the marriage news to the wedding party which ends up the novel. A Western critic comments on The Wedding of Zein: ÙˆØكؠ«ÃƒËœÃ‚ ± Ù†¦ÃƒËœ ÙÅ Ø ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ °ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ÙÅ Øلن° Ø ·ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã… قؠ© Øلؠ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ¨ Ø µÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ Ù ÙÅ ØلكØ ªÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ق٠ن¡ Ø ÙÅ ØÙ„ ØلقØ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÙÅ ÙÅ Ù†Øلؠ°Ãƒâ„¢Ã… نيكؠªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Øنن¡ ÙÅ Ø ±ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Ø ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø ¸ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ Ø ©ÃƒËœÃ…’ ÙˆÙÅ Ø ¯ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ØلقØØ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¦ Øلن° Øلؠ¶ÃƒËœÃ‚ Ùƒ Ùâ € ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ù†¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ [1] ، Øوؠ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ° ØÙ„Øقل Øلن° ØÙ„ØØ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ [2] . Ø ºÃƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ± Øنن¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ °ÃƒËœ Øلن¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ق٠ÙŠنؠ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ÙÅ ØØ ³ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœ Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ° ØلؠªÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ·Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ . ٠ؠؠªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ° Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœ نؠ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¶ÃƒËœÃ‚ ÙƒÙÅ Ù†للØ ºÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ©ÃƒËœÃ…’ Ù Øنؠ¬Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ¹ Øلؠ´ÃƒËœÃ‚ ®ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒâ„¢Ã… ØØ ª Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ Ø ªÃƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ø ¸ Ø ¨Ãƒâ„¢Ã†â€™Ã ƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ…’ ÙˆØÙ†ÙÅ Ù„ØØ ¬ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ Ù ÙÅ Ù†¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ °ÃƒËœ ن٠ؠؠ© Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ´ÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯ Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ·ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¹ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ªÃƒâ„¢Ã… للØ ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ¯ Ù†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Øلؠ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ ØÙÅ ØØ ª ØÙ„ØÙ†كلÙÅ Ø ²Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø © ÙˆØÙ„ØÙ†¦Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã… ÙƒÙÅ Ø ©ÃƒËœÃ…’ ØلؠªÃƒâ„¢Ã… ÙÅ Ø ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù ÙÅ Ù†¡ÃƒËœ كل Øنؠ³ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ø ¹ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ù†¦ ØلقÙÅ Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ©ÃƒËœÃ…’ ؠؠªÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ° Ùâ €žÃ™Å Ø ªÃƒËœÃ‚ ³ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ¡Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ ØلقØØ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¦ Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœ ؠؠ¯ÃƒËœ Ø ¨ÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¤Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒâ„¢Ã‚ Øلن° ØلكØ ªÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ÃƒËœÃ‚ © Ø ¹Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ «Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ Ù†¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ °Ãƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ Øلؠ´ÃƒËœÃ‚ ®ÃƒËœÃ‚ µÃƒâ„¢Ã… ØØ ª ØلؠªÃƒËœÃƒâ„¢Ã‚ Ù†¡ÃƒËœÃ‚ ©. (Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ Ù†¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¯Ãƒâ„¢Ã… Ø © وؠ¢ÃƒËœÃ‚ ®ÃƒËœÃ‚ ±Ãƒâ„¢Ã‹â€ Ù†1981: 201-202) My translation What attracted me in Al-Tayeb Salihs way of writing is his attitude to the villagers. He sees them in a funny way and invites readers to laugh at them or, at least, smile. However, behind this attitude is a feeling of sympathy. Despite that we find these characters funny, but all of them keep their dignity. I find a refreshing whiff in this. After reading many American and English novels, readers may ask about the reason of writing about some inane characters in these novels. 1.2 A word on the translator of The Wedding of Zein Denys Johnson-Davies (1922- ), a renowned English translator of the Arabic literature, was born in Vancouver, Canada. He had spent his first years in Sudan, Egypt, Uganda, and Kenya, before he was sent to England at age 12. In 1930s, he attended Cambridge University and studied oriental languages. He started his career life with the BBC between 1941 and 1945. In the same year, he moved to Egypt to work in the British Council in Cairo as a translator and then started a journey of more than sixty years with the Arabic literature. In Cairo, he met the pioneers of the modern Arabic literature and made friendships with some many of them. In an interview, Denys states that when I arrived to Egypt in 1945, I was the only translator into English at that timeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I was dictator in my field at that time and I enjoyed this. (AUC 2011).He also expresses his attitude towards translation as a profession: Translation is real hard work. Its also not appreciated. If you get your name anywh ere on the book at all, youre very lucky. I wouldve preferred to have been a writer.'(ibid.). In 2006, he published his memoirs under the title: A life between the lines of Arabic literature. In 2007, he was awarded the Sheikh Zayed Book Award as the Culture Personality of the Year. Referred to as the leading Arabic-English translator of our time by Edward Said, there is no translator in the West who conveyed the Arabic literature to the occidental reader than Denys did. His translations are not limited to one literary genre; he translated short stories, novels, plays, and poems or as he states that when I enjoy reading something, I decide to translate it (ibid.). He is also interested in Islamic studies and is co-translator of three volumes of Prophetic Hadith. Al-Tayeb Salih, however, has a special place for Denys who translated Al-Tayebs all three novels. When asked about his favorite writer to translate, Denys unhesitatingly answered Al-Tayeb Salihà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I feel that his work is very simple, very direct, and that theres nothing pretentious at all about ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I enjoy Al-Tayeb Salih works more than any other Arabic writersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I am a great fan of AL-Tayeb Salih. (ibid.). 1.3 Literary Translation Literary text, as an expressive text type by Reiss (1977/1989), has a set of typical features. Jones (2009:152) summarises a wide range of viewpoints about the features attributed to literary texts: They have a written base-form, though they may also be spoken; they enjoy canonicity (high social prestige); they fulfil an affective/aesthetic rather than transactional or informational function, aiming to provoke emotions and/or entertain rather than influence or inform; they have no real-world truth-value i.e. they are judged as fictional, whether fact-based or not; they feature words, images, etc., with ambiguous and/or indeterminable meanings; they are characterized by poetic language use (where language form is important in its own right, as with word-play or rhyme) and heteroglossia (i.e. they contain more than one voice); and they may draw on minoritized styles styles outside the dominant standard, for example slang or archaism. Depending on the above features of literary works, literary translation is unique in some aspects: First, literary texts, as opposed to non-literary texts, are characterized by rhetorical and aesthetic value, which is the essence expected to be captured and maintained in a literary translation. Literary works are created artistically by increasing the difficulty and length of perception, which leads to defamiliarization (Shklovsky, 1917, quoted in Pilkington, 2000: 18). Once the defamiliarization is comprehended by the translators or readers, a unique sensation is created. To reproduce the rhetorical and aesthetic value is one of the main tasks for literary translators. Second, literary translators choices of wording are highly dependent on the target language (TL) and culture. Literary texts are solidly rooted in the source language (SL) and culture, yet due to linguistic or cultural differences, literal translations might fail to gain acceptability. How to cope with the linguistic and cultural differences is a crucial question for literary translators. Third, a consideration of the target audiences is another important issue in literary translation. Literary translation always has a readership which is likely to be quite different from the one the writer originally had in mind. A good translation of any text from any period will, most often, only be good in the context of a particular audience at a particular time and place. A good English translation of Salihs The Wedding of Zein, for example, for people in England in 1960 might not be a good translation for people in Australia in 2010. Finally, literary translation is a complicated act, and to this effect, there is no definite correct translation; yet there is an appropriate translation according to certain criteria. Stylistic approaches to translation studies supply a theoretical perspective, which identify the style as the essence of literary translations. 1.4 Aims of the study The ultimate aim of the current research is to investigate the extent to which Denys Johnson-Davies is successful in dealing with cultural terms in his translation of The Wedding of Zein. This overall goal can be achieved through a set of research questions: 1. What are the different techniques utilised by the translator to convey Arabic cultural terms into his English translation? 2. Does the translator domesticate or foreignise his translation? 3. Does the translators overall strategy to domesticate or foreignise his translation affect his decision to use some certain techniques rather than others in conveying cultural items? 1.5 Methodology: An Integrated Approach In this research, two approaches will be combined to form the theoretical frame of my dissertation. These two approaches will work together in an attempt to answer the research questions. The first approach is Ivirs (1987) seven procedures to translate cultural items. Although many researchers have proposed different procedures and techniques to translate cultural references, Ivirs procedures have been chosen for their comprehensiveness, clearness, and directness. The other part of this integrated approach is Venutis (1995/1998) work on domestication (translators visibility) and foreignsation (translators invisibility). Ivirs procedures to translate cultural items form the lower layer of this integrated approach. They represent the tools used by the translator to reflect his overall strategy towards the text being translated. The overall strategy is the upper layer which is represented by Venutis domestication or foreignsation. In other words, any translator who is dealing with cultural terms has to make two interrelated decisions. Firstly, he needs to decide whether, depending on some certain considerations such as the reader, the place, and the time, he will domesticate or foreignise his translated text. This is a text-level decision. Secondly, and accordingly, he has to decide which specific procedure to choose to deal with every single cultural term in the text. This is a cultural term-level decision. In order to realise the mechanism of this approach, let us consider this simple example. If a translator into English decides to adopt domestication as his overall strategy (text-level decision) to translate a text from Arabic, he may convey, for example, Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ © Øلن¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ºÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ into English by defining it (cultural term-level decision) as: Maghrib Prayer, the fourth daily prayer for Muslims prayed just after the sunset. On the contrary, if he adopts foreignsation as a text-level strategy, he simply translates Ø µÃƒâ„¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒËœÃƒËœÃ‚ © Øلن¦ÃƒËœÃ‚ ºÃƒËœÃ‚ ±ÃƒËœÃ‚ ¨ as Maghrib Prayer.
Monday, August 19, 2019
Richard II: His Dramatic Downfall Essay -- Literary Analysis, Shakespe
Shakespeare’s plays were grouped into three categories: comedies, tragedies and histories. The histories were those plays based on the lives of English kings. Shakespeare was one of the first writers to write about English history. According to Garber, â€Å"before Shakespeare’s time there were few history plays such written in England--- England history was told in verse and prose chronicles (239)†. It’s considered that Richard II is one of the early â€Å"historical plays†. The play became so iconic that even Queen Elizabeth said that she was â€Å"Richard the second, know ye not that†. Richard II tells the story about a king’s downfall. Richard II is not your average king. He is useless with his power and does not know how to use it. He is the king of England when the play begins but shortly after his kingship is taken away from him. Richard II is a young man who has not matured much since his adolescence. He is disconnected from his land and its people, which becomes one of the downfalls of his crown. He has an extraordinary flair for poetic language. He is witty and poetic personality doesn’t work with his higher calling in life. A king should be strong and fearless. King Richard II is not a man of action and as the play advances, he gets into more and more trouble. As his end approaches, he becomes very poetic. Like most Shakespearean heroes, Richard II has a strong theatrical personality. He likes putting on a show and enjoys a bit of wordplay, even at his own expense. What sets him apart from other Shakespearean characters is the perverse joy he takes in his downfall. There are many tragic events that lead to Richard’s downfall and consequently lost of his crown. The most important one was that he basically didn’t ... ...n moral and royal principles. By the end of this play, it’s clear that Richard has completely questioned the concept of divine right and when he has to shed his crown and turn over England to his enemy, he dramatically states â€Å"Throw away respect, Tradition, form, and ceremonious duty; For you have but mistook me all this while. I live with bread like you, feel want, Taste grief, need friends. (3.3.172-76). Just because Richard as a divine right to be the King doesn’t mean that he is the right choice to accomplished the requirement of what it takes to be a great king. Richard was lacking on the will power of a leader. His downfall was his fault in the sense that he couldn’t concentrate to see what he was doing to his region as a ruler. He failed as a leader but at the same time he gain sometime much better than a crown, Richard gain the understanding of who he is.
Sunday, August 18, 2019
Acupuncture :: essays research papers fc
Acupuncture is considered to be a new alternative medicine in western society, and has recently become very popular in the United States (â€Å"All About Acupuncture†). Acupuncture is the insertion of hair-fine needles into the body’s surface, which is supposed to cause psychological effects on the body to cure the patient of an illness. These illnesses may be emotional mental or physical (Singer). But some doctors question the validity of this practice, and believe that acupuncture may be unsafe (Barrett).      The first basis of acupuncture was probably first theorized by Shen Nung about 5000 years ago in a document called â€Å"Huang Di Nei Jing†(Singer). Shen Nung believed that there is an energy force running through the entire body called â€Å"Qi†(pronounced chee). Qi travels through the body in â€Å"meridians†or channels. These meridians run vertically up and down the body’s surface (Singer). The Qi is supposed to be the mental, spiritual, emotional, and physical aspects of life. The Qi reacting with the forces of the â€Å"Yin†and â€Å"Yang†influence a person’s health (Singer). The Yin and Yang represent the positive and negative forces in the universe (â€Å"All About Acupuncture†). â€Å"Yin is signified by female attributes, passive, dark, cold, moist, that which moves medially†¦ Yang is signified by male attributes, light, active, warm, dry, that which moves laterally†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Singer). If the Qi in a person’s body is not in balance with the Yin and Yang then an illness will befall the person, and he or she should be treated with acupuncture, which corrects this imbalance (Singer).      The process of acupuncture requires the placement of needles at acupuncture points so the Qi can be balanced. There are about nine different kinds of acupuncture needles, although six needles are commonly used today (Singer). The needles vary in size, length, and shape of the head. These needles can be placed between 15 ° and 90 ° angles depending on the treatment that is required. Also the needles may be raised, pushed, twirled or plucked (vibration of the needle) to cause sensations called â€Å"deqi†to correct the Qi imbalance in the body. Electrical currents may also be applied to the needles to allow stimulation at the acupuncture points. Acupuncture is often accompanied by acupressure and burning of herbs near the skin to help correct Qi imbalances (Singer).      There are several different theories as to how acupuncture possibly works. First acupuncture might possibly cut pain off from reaching the spinal cord or the brain since many acupuncture points are located on neural structures.
Saturday, August 17, 2019
Comparison Between Hinduism and Budhism
Comparison of Two types of Pagan Religion i. e. Hinduism and Buddhism South Asian people have a well-defined amalgam of Abrahamic and Pagan religions. Two of the Pagan religions of this region are well-known in this region because their birth place South Asia. These two religions are â€Å"Hinduism†and â€Å"Buddhism†. Hinduism refers to the principal and most ancient religious tradition of India: in it the lives of the believers are governed by the doctrines of â€Å"Dharma†or universal law, â€Å"Karma†or the cumulative effects of personal actions, and â€Å"Samsara†or the cycle of rebirth, liberation from which is the first goal of life; [similarly] Buddhism is a religion and philosophic system, founded in India in the 6th cent. By Buddha: it teaches the right thinking and self-denial will enable the soul to reach Nirvana, a divine state of release from misdirected desire†(â€Å"Dictionary definitions you can understand-†).Altho ugh the birth place of both religions is South Asia and thus they stem from a similar Philosophy and culture, as S. Radhakrishnan says â€Å"Buddhism, in its origin at least is an offshoot of Hinduism†(qtd. In â€Å"Buddhism & Hinduism, Comparative Study of Buddhism & Hinduism, Compare Contrast Buddhism & Hinduism. â€Å"); yet there is also a prominent difference in the major ideational elements of Doctrine of both; which includes â€Å"Concept of God†, â€Å"Reincarnation†and â€Å"Caste system†. In each and every religion of the World, the word â€Å"God†generally refers to designate a supreme power, who is the ultimate creator of the entire universe.In Hinduism there is also such definition for God. â€Å"Neither the multitude of gods nor great sages know my origin, for I am the source of all the gods and great sages. A mortal who knows me as the unborn, beginning-less great lord of the world is freed from all delusion and all evilsâ⠂¬ (â€Å"Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 2 – Verses 9 & 10. †). But the thorough study of Hinduism reveals it a polytheistic religion; indeed most of Hindus attest it by their worship of God. As they consider the many of living and non-living things to be divine and sacred.For example they consider the trees, the sun, the moon, the monkey, the snake and the human beings as manifestations of God. While in Buddhism, the designation of God is same as in Hinduism. As Gospel of Buddha says â€Å"There is, O monks, an unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, and unformed. Were there not, O monks, this unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, and unformed, there would be no escape from the world of the born, originated, created, formed. Since, O monks, there is an unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, and unformed, therefore is there an escape from the world of the born, originated, created, formed†(â€Å"The Gospel of Buddha†).But there appears difference in the belief in gods and godly manifestations of both religions; because in Buddhism there is no such entailment of godly figures in the original Buddhist doctrine, except in few sects. â€Å"Buddha was once asked by a disciple whether God exists. He refused to reply. When pressed, he said that if you are suffering from a stomach ache would you concentrate on relieving the pain or studying the prescription of the physician. â€Å"It is not my business or yours to find out whether there is God – our business is to remove the sufferings of the world†(â€Å"Concept of god in Buddhism†).Doctrine of Buddhism says that all these are the ways, by which people soothe themselves. â€Å"Gripped by fear, men go to the sacred mountains, sacred grooves, sacred trees and shrines†(â€Å"The Dhammapada 188†). But also Buddhists do not condemn the concept of gods and also they do not regard the believers of gods as sinners. Hinduism is considered as the complex mixture of religious philosoph ies and schools; but the soul of all this is â€Å"Reincarnation†i. e. the journey of the â€Å"soul†(atman) from one body to another body(cycle of birth and death).This cycle of birth and death (also known as â€Å"Samsara†) is summarized in the following verse of The Bhagavad Gita: â€Å"Just as a man discards worn out clothes and puts on new clothes, the soul discards worn out bodies and wears new ones. †(Chapter 2-Verse 22). As we profoundly glance over both the religions: â€Å"Buddhism shares some concepts of Reincarnation with Hinduism but on the major there appear differences. For example Theravada Buddhism emphasizes in the doctrine of â€Å"Anatta†, or no soul, which states there is no enduring entity that persists from one life to the next.While in Hinduism, â€Å"Karma†determines the circumstances of subsequent lives, so there is continuity between personalities but not persistence of identity. For this reason, Thervada Budd hist prefer the term â€Å"Rebirth†to â€Å"Reincarnation†. That is why in Buddhism, the law of â€Å"Karma†is viewed as naturalistic, akin to the laws of physics. Thus Buddhists do not consider the circumstances of â€Å"Rebirth†as rewards or punishment handed out by a controlling God, they simply regard it the natural result of various good and bad deeds.Thus contrary to the infinite cycle of â€Å"Reincarnation†: â€Å"Rebirth†inevitably involves suffering and ends when all carvings are lost and â€Å"Nirvana†is achieved†(â€Å"Does Hinduism Believe In Reincarnation. â€Å"). So Buddhists lead their lives in a way (negating the concept of infinite cycle of births and deaths), which leads them to their ultimate destination i. e. Nirvana Some of the teachings of every religion of the world provide the guidelines in order to secure the basic social rights of the people.But the there are some religion in which â€Å"Cast e system†has deprived the people from their basic social rights. â€Å"During the Buddha’s time â€Å"Brahmanism†was the predominant religion in India, in which all humans were divided into four castes i. e priests, warriors, traders and laborers. Later on this â€Å"Caste system†was absorbed into â€Å"Hinduism†, given religious legitimacy and sanction and has continued to function right up till the present. This has made the Social contact between each cast minimal and has provided the lower ones with the less opportunities, the less freedom and the less rights.Outside the caste system there are the outcast’s people, who are considered so impure that they are hardly counted as humans. On the other hand Buddha himself was born into the warrior caste, but he severely criticized the caste system. He ridiculed the priests’ claims to be superior, he criticized the theological basis of the system and he welcomed into the Sangha p eople of all castes, including outcasts. His most famous saying on the subject is: â€Å"Birth does not make one a priest or an outcaste. Behavior makes one either a priest or an outcaste††(â€Å"Buddhist Studies: Caste System. â€Å").In summary to the religious beliefs, philosophies and social teachings; Buddhism provides an ultimate concept for an ultimate Power, similarly it gives the fascinating hope for ultimate destination â€Å"Nirvana†and also it maps a just society on the golden rules of equity. While Hinduism limits the ultimate concept of God to worldly figures, similarly the concept of â€Å"Reincarnation†, negates the ultimate destination; which indirectly, is the negation of God and also the caste system in it makes the life of its follower’s worldly punishment, because deprivation of basic social rights leads the people to inferiority complex. Bhagavad Gita: Chapter 2 – Verses 9,10 &22†³Ã‚ Bamboo Wisdom. Web. 19 Oct. 2011.  â€Å"Buddhism & Hinduism, Comparative Study of Buddhism & Hinduism,Compare Contrast Buddhism & Hinduism. † Buddhist Tourism,Travel Buddhist Sites,Buddhist Tourism in India, Japan, Tibet, China. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. http://www. buddhist-tourism. com/buddhism/religion/buddhism-hinduism. html â€Å"Buddhist Studies: Caste System. † BuddhaNet – Worldwide Buddhist Information and Education Network. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. . Does Hinduism Believe In Reincarnation? † Personal Development on a Deeper Level – Tyler Hardy. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. . â€Å"Reincarnation – World, Body, Life, History, Beliefs, Time, Person, Human, Hinduism, Buddhism, Shiite Muslims, Judaism and Christianity, Ancient Greece, West Africa. â€Å"Encyclopedia of Death and Dying. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. . â€Å"South Asia – Definition | WordIQ. com. † Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus – WordIQ Dictionary. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. â€Å"The Dhammap ada: Verses and Stories.  Tipitaka Network: Bringing Dhamma Studies to You. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. . â€Å"The Gospel of Buddha. † The Reluctant Messenger of Science and Religion: Science and the World's Religions Are Pieces to a Puzzle That Need Each Other to Form a Complete Picture. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. ;http://reluctant-messenger. com/gospel_buddha/chapter_20. htm;. â€Å" Concept of god in Buddhism-by Dr. Zakir Naik†Dictionary Definitions You Can Understand – YourDictionary. Web. 19 Oct. 2011. ;http://www. yourdictionary. com;. http://saif_w. tripod. com/interfaith/general/god/inbuddhism. htm
Diana Ecks Essay
Diana Eck’s writings in Darsan: Seeing the Devine Image in India address many of the key elements of the Hindu culture and traditions. Much of her writing deals with the visual aspect of the religion, and how it is more about the spirituality rather than the actual image itself. Within each chapter she hit on other major details within in the Hinduism. However this essay will discuss the specific concepts such as pilgrimage to certain sites, importance of the visual aspect, and how the construction is a religious discipline in itself. Diana Eck’s essay begins with the discussion of how Hinduism is a visual religion. Numerous times she explains how sight was a major aspect in worship and Darsan. In this section she goes on to explain that the very phrase of the Hindu religion is seeing is knowing. The whole point of the darsan aspect is to see and be seen by the god, goddess or diate that lives in the shine. Furthermore the eyes play a key role in the worship of gods. Through the eyes on can gain blessings of the divine. However to get to the dwelling places of these gods is not always a simple trip to a local shrine. She begins to discuss the pilgrimages or journeys of many people in order to achieve darsan at a specific place. During this portion of the essay she talks about the journeys and dedication that many of the Hindu followers partake in. not only do people traveling for gods but also living religious figures. For example Ghandi was perhaps the most exalted living Hindu figure. Thousands would travel just to get a glimpse of him passing in an attempt to achieve darsan. Towards the end of her passage she explains the importance of the construction of the images, and how each one was a religious discipline in itself. Later on in the passage she begins to explain how the construction of a temple becomes part of the cosmos; and in its construction the entire universe is rearranged. The very ground plan is a geometrical map of their cosmos with the sacred image at its center. Many of the temples are models of sacred mountains said to be the dwelling places of the gods, and diates. In a larger sense the temple are said to be images themselves. The construction of the temple gives evidence to this. Eck explains that from the beginning of the construction to the end is a ritual. My thoughts on the passage were that the author had extensive knowledge on the Hindu art forms along with its culture and myths. Her organization made it so each topic led to one another, and also goes into detail on almost every topic discussed. On the other hand I found one of her weaknesses was that the information got repetitive and made it difficult to focus throughout some of the paragraphs. A clear point however was the comparisons between Christianity’s god and the Hindu gods. Many times she compares the two saying a person that practices the Hindu religion could not comprehend the idea of one almighty invisible god, and that it would also be difficult for us to understand the importance of vision being a main part of the Hindu religion. This book has also shown me that each and every design has a specific importance to the religion itself. Before I assumed most of it had to be meaningless decoration, and that gods with more than eye actually serve a purpose for in achieving darsan. I had always assumed that it was just decoration or something completely different from its actual purpose. In this essay I have given a brief summary of some the major points in Diana Eck’s book Darsan: Seeing the Devine Image. These points include importance of the visual aspects of Hinduism, the ritual practice before during and after in constructing a hindu monument, and what the purpose of the pilgrimage is. I also have given a person opinion on the author strengths and weaknesses, prior stereo types and some comparisons that can be found within the book. Overall I found the book to be helpful in the fact that it gave specific reasons for many of the decorations and practices in the Hindu religion.
Friday, August 16, 2019
Questionnaire for Mcd
We are currently conducting a research on ethics of McDonald’s advertisement. We are surveying on the opinions of college students towards the ethics of McDonald’s advertisement. Are they really advertising their fast food ethically? Your response and feedback will be much appreciated. It will take 5 minutes to complete this questionnaire. Gender: Age: _20_ {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Male Female Which faculty do you study in? {draw:rect} {draw:rect} {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Business Engineering Biomedical Law How often do you eat McDonald’s fast food every month? draw:rect} {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Seldom 1-3 times > 3 times What do you think about the taste of McDonald’s food? {draw:rect} {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Not tasty Tasty Very tasty Do you think that McDonald’s food is as tasty and attractive looking as shown in their advertisements? {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Yes No Do you think that McDonald’s advertisements are affecting kids to eat more fa st food? {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Yes No Do you think that McDonald’s food is as healthy as advertised? draw:rect} {draw:rect} Yes No Do you think that the information provided about the food by McDonald’s is complete and true? {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Yes No What factor makes you eat McDonald’s food? {draw:rect} {draw:rect} {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Taste Advertisement/ Promotion Price Time saving Do you agree that McDonald’s advertisement has caused people to eat more and become more obese? {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Yes No Does the advertisement or promotion made by McDonald’s make you consume more McDonald’s fast food? draw:rect} {draw:rect} Yes No Do you think that McDonalds should put complete information about the nutrition in the food prepared in the advertisement? {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Yes No Consider this scenario: You are the sales manager of McDonald’s and you have to make a decision in a meeting with colleagues to decide on th e advertising plans for McDonald’s. Your colleagues suggested that you should advertise McDonald’s food as healthy as the society now is getting more conscious of health issues. However, you know that McDonald’s food is not the ideal healthy food. What would you do? {draw:rect} Advertise McDonald’s food as healthy and earn more profits in order to get a higher commission. {draw:rect} Gives full information about McDonald’s food and risk your job as a sales manager because it may affect the sales. When you buy burger from McDonald’s, does it exactly look like how it is advertised? {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Yes No If no, do you feel that you are misled by the advertisement? {draw:rect} {draw:rect} Yes No
Thursday, August 15, 2019
A Historical Perspective on Reading Research and Practice Essay
This article has responded to both internal and external forces resulting from gradual and dramatic transitions based on historical perspectives. This has permitted a reasonable reflection and a sense of wisdom that is susceptible to loss when one engages in it. The underlying reason is the critical dimension to the present day events and issues analysis resulting from the broadened reading culture. In the late 20th century, reading became a recognized study field with systematic research programs aiming at ascertaining its fundamental nature and its acquisition process. This resulted from the confluence of social, educational, political and economic factors. Quantitative and qualitative changes in U. S. public schools’ systems after the World War II provided favorable environment for the reading transitions. Reading processes and skills were broken down into constituent parts which were practiced and reinforced in a systematic and orderly manner during classroom sections. Reading became a conditioned behavior based on certain environmental contingencies. Individuals positively responded to learning from repeated and controlled stimulation from the environment. This stimulus-response relationship was accompanied by rewards and punishments led to the habituation of the reading act (Alexander & Fox, 2004). Therefore, academic learning involved identification of the preferred behaviors prerequisites and training. This aimed at untangling the chained links in reading so as to train the learner in each component skill. In addition, material effectiveness was structured and controlled in the delivery of environmental stimulation and practice opportunities. Emphasis on studying observable behavior focused on reading as a perceptual activity which included identification of visual signals and validating diagnostic instruments and remedial techniques. However, alternative human learning theories which focused on perceptual process as a whole still operated on underground which examined that reading is per introspection rather than through behavior. Human beings could make a coherent sense out of the perceptional data through whole-word recognition, context comprehension and word identification thus considering reading as a unique human activity owning definitive characteristics. Increased interest in internal mental structures and processes ignited by the advancements in neurology and artificial intelligence has caused transformations in the learning institutions. Moreover, the dissatisfaction with behaviorism as an explanatory system caused changes. The article points that present institutions should conceptualize learning as a natural process rather than conditioning and that language should be developed through a meaningful use. Also learning to read should be viewed as an inherent ability rather than a reflective action with laborious skill acquisition. As a result, reading research unified the literacy field through language arts. Learning to read became a matter of arriving at a facility due to the understanding quest within a language-rich environment. The growing attention to the structure and processes of the human mind and increased federal funding by the Unites States led to creation of research centers caused another theoretical transformation. These new researchers explained human language as an interaction between symbol system and mind. Learning as a natural metaphor was replaced with a mechanistic information processing metaphor. Text-based as a form of learning, involved knowledge which was organized and stored within the individual mind (Alexander & Fox, 2004). In addition, Knowledge base was depicted as powerful, persuasive, individualistic and modifiable since it was linked to the individual’s perspectives on what they had read, their interpretation and recall out of the written text. The information processing of this period resulted in cognition-related constructs which strengthened the aforementioned characteristics of knowledge. Furthermore, it focused on the individual mind. This was because the computer-based guiding had little considerations of socio-cultural influences in processing linguistic information. To add on, the research studies stressed on individualistic interpretations of written text and exhibited that the knowledge of the students could be greatly modified through training, direct intervention and/or overt instructions. Other contributors of improved text comprehension were instructional environments and pedagogical techniques. In view of any reading approach, there must be a shift away from the neurological argument to much concern for naturalism in the materials and procedures used to teach reading. Moreover, they should create unity within the language arts. The cognitive psychology gave a new viewpoint for literacy and educational researchers. It studied literacy with naturally occurring texts in natural settings with holistic and aesthetic school of thought. It aimed creating a mutual understanding arising in the social interaction of individuals in particular contexts at a time (Alexander & Fox, 2004). The dominant perspective was learning being a socio-cultural collaborative experience and the learner being a member of the learning community. Reform on modern schools Present day schools should anticipate for motivation in the form of readers’ achievement of goals, interest and involvement in the learning experience with change in perception of texts, reader and reading. This can be achieved due to the introduction of the hypermedia and hypertext forms of learning which has increased the attention in classroom discourse thus improving the students’ academic. Effective orientation has to be done so as to capture the complexity of reading and recognize the changing nature of reading as the reader engages in a range of reading-related, goal-directed activities. With the dichotomization of reading into learning to read and reading to learn, it has led to integrated and developmental learning perspective. Engaged learning has led to the acknowledgement of the fact that reading extends to the texts students come across daily such as nonlinear, interactive, dynamic and visually complex materials transmitted using audiovisual media. Current learning institutions should learn about the potentials of alternatives nonlinear media and examine how pedagogical techniques and learning environments can be adapted to aid readers from struggling with traditional texts. Students should be encouraged to participate in meaningful and goal-directed text-based learning. Moreover, attention should be drawn to create a personally and socially valuable body of knowledge. Strategies are put in place to promote reflection, choice and deliberate execution on the learner’s part which actively engages the leaner thus developing the reading perspective. To be complete, readers, and learners should focus on demonstrating fluency in reading and other basic linguistic skills. Workable solutions Some of workable solutions would include provision of personally relevant texts, both traditional and alternative that will promote deeper and wider student engagement in their learning. Putting in place technological advancements capable of transforming learning and teaching through production of proliferated information sources and different text types can also be productive. Involving high-stakes testing and efforts to institute national standards have hastened the students’ learning since they prescribe the content and skills learners should have acquired at various institutional levels. Investments in basic reading skills and components in special education institutions have helped struggling readers since researchers have greatly supported. Changes which might improve things One of major consideration that should be put in place is recognition of the fact that reading is invariably physiological, psychological and sociological thus an integrated orientation is a prerequisite. Therefore physical, visual, and neurological stimuli to the learning processes should also be employed. In addition, every reading process needs to enhance the psychological interpretation, storage and retrieval of text, goals formulation and expression of interests. Sociologically, a reading culture that focuses in intra-individual and inter-individual communication through linguistic media that are socio-culturally influenced can also play a big role in changing the existing education. Lastly, a fine-grained reading view that incorporate brain structures and mental activities of an individual and social behavior have to be integrated meaningfully throughout these orientations.
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